ON A REPUBLIC

I say that the whole of a polity is divided into three parts; the good men who manage the public affairs, those who are powerful, and those who are employed in supplying and procuring the necessaries of life. The first group is that of the counselors, the auxiliaries, and the mechanical and sordid arts. The first two groups belong to the liberal condition of life; the third, of those who labor to procure subsistence. Of these the council is best, the laborers, the worst; and the auxiliaries, a medium between the two. The council should govern, and the laborers should be governed; and the auxiliaries should both govern and be governed. For that which consults for the general good previously deliberates what ought to be done; while that which is of an auxiliary nature, so far as it is belligerent, rules over the whole mechanical tribe; but it is itself governed in so far as it has previously received advice from others.

Of these parts, however, each again receives a triple division. For of that which consults, one part presides, another governs, and another counsels for the general good. With respect to the presiding part, is that which plans, contrives, and deliberates about what pertains to the community, prior to the other parts, and afterwards refers its counsels to the senate. But the governing part is either that which now rules (for the first time), or which has before performed that office. With respect to the third part, which consults for the general good, this receives the advice of the earlier parts, and by its suffrages and authority confirms whatever it [referred] to its decisions. In short, those who provide should refer the community's affairs to that part which consults for the general good; while the latter part should refer these affairs through the presiding officers to the convention.

Likewise, of that part which is auxiliary, powerful and efficacious, one part is of a governing nature; another part is defensive, and the remaining, and greater part, is private and military. It is the governing part, therefore, from which the leaders of the armies, the officers of the bands, the bands of soldiers, and the vanguard are derived; and universally all those who rank as leaders. The vanguard consists of the bravest, the most impetuous, and the most daring, the remaining military multitude being gregarious. Of the third part engaged in sordid occupations, and in laboring to procure the necessaries of life, one part consists of husbandmen, and those employed in the cultivation of land; another are artisans, making such instruments and machines as are required by the occasions of life, and another part travels and bargains, exporting to foreign regions such things as are superabundant in the city, and importing into it other things from foreign countries. The systems of political society are organized in many such parts.

Next we must study their adaptation and union. Since, however, the whole of political society may be well compared to a lyre, as it requires apparatus and mutual adjustment, and also because it must be touched and used musically; Ñ this is enough.

Political society is organized by disciplines, the study of customs, and laws; through these three, man is educated, and improved. Disciplines are the source of erudition, and lead the desires to tend towards virtue. The laws, both repelling men from the commissions of crimes, and alluring them by honors and gifts incite them (to virtue). Manners and studies fashion the soul like wax, and through their continued energy impress thereon propensities that become second nature. These three should however cooperate with the beautiful, the useful and the just; each of these three should if possible aim at all these three; but if not all of them, it should at least have two or one of than as its goal, so that disciplines, manners and laws may be beautiful, just and advantageous. In the first place, the beautiful in conduct should be preferred; in the second place the just, and in the third place the useful. Universally the endeavor should be that through these the city may become, in the most eminent degree, consentaneous and concordant with its parts, and may be free from sedition and hostile contention. This will happen if the passions in the youths' souls are disciplined, and in things pleasing and painful are led to mediocrity, and if the possessions of men are moderate, and they derive their subsistence from the cultivation of the earth. This will also be accomplished, if good men rule over those that are in want of virtue; skillful men over those that are wanting in skill, and rich men over those things that require a certain amount of generosity and expenditure; and if also appropriate honors are distributed to those who govern in all these in a becoming manner. But there are three causes which are incitements to virtue,Ñ fear desire and shame. Law can produce fear, but custom shame; for those that are accustomed to act well will be ashamed to do anything that is base. Desire is produced by disciplines; for they simultaneously assign the causes of things and attract the soul, and especially so when accompanied by exhortation. Hence the souls of young men should be sufficiently instructed in what pertains to senates, fellowship and associations, both military and political, but that the tribe of elderly men should be trained to things of this kind; since young men indeed require correction and instruction, but elderly men need benevolent associations, and a mode of living unattended by pain. Since therefore we have said that the worthy man is perfected through three things, customs, laws and disciplines, we must consider how customs or manners are corrupted usually, and how they grow permanent. We shall then find that customs are corrupted in two ways; through ourselves, or foreigners. Through ourselves indeed, through our flying from pain, whereby we fail to endure labor; or through pursuit of pleasure; whereby we reject the good, for labors procure good, and pleasures evil. Hence through pleasures, becoming incontent and remiss, men are rendered effeminate in their souls, and more prodigal. Customs and manners are corrupted through foreigners when their numbers swamp the natives, and best of the success of their mercantile employments; or when those who dwell in the suburbs, becoming lovers of pleasures and luxury, their manners spread to the single neighbors. Therefore the legislators, officers and mass of the people should diligently take notice whether the customs of the city are being carefully preserved, and that throughout the whole people. Moreover they should see to the preserving pure of the home race, avoiding crossing with other nations, and whether the general wealth's total remains the same, without undue increase. For the possession of superfluities is accompanied by the desire of still more of the superfluous. In such ways the customs should be preserved.

With respect to disciplines, however, the same legislators and officers, should diligently inspect and examine the sophists, whether they are teaching what is useful to the laws, to the established political principles, and to the local economy of life. For sophistic doctrines may infect men with no passing, but greatest infelicity; when they dare make innovations in anything pertaining to human or divine affairs, contrary to the popular views; than which nothing can be more pernicious either with respect to truth, security or renown. In addition to this, they introduce into the minds of the general people obscurity and confusion. Of this kind are all doctrines that teach either that there is no God, or if there is, that he is not affected towards the human race so as to regard it with providential care, but despises and deserts it. In men such doctrines produce folly and injustice, to a degree that is inexpressible. Any anarchist who has dismissed fear of disobedience to the laws, violates them with wanton boasts. Hence the necessity of political and traditionally venerable principles; adapted to the speakers' disposition, free from dissimulation. Thus what is said exhibits the speakers's manners. The laws will inevitably introduce security if the polity is organized on lines of natural laws, and not on the unnatural. From a tyranny cities derive no advantage, and very little from an oligarchy. The first need, therefore, is a kingdom, and the second is and aristocracy.

For a kingdom, indeed, is as it were an image of God, and which is with difficulty preserved and defended by the human soul. For it rapidly degenerates through luxury and insolence. Hence it is not proper to employ it universally, but only so far as i tmay be useful to the state; and an aristocracy should be liberally mingled with it, as this consists of many rulers, who emulate each other, and often govern alternately. There must however also be democratic elements; for as the citizen is part of the whole state, he, also should receive a reward from it. Yet he must be sufficiently restrained, for the common people are bold and rash.

By a necessity of nature, everything mortal is subject to changes; some improving, others growing worse. Things born, increase until they arrive at their consummation, whereafter they age and perish. Things that grow of themselves, by the same nature decay into the hidden beyond; and then return to mortality through transformation of growth; then by repeated decay, retrograde in another circle. Sometimes, when houses or cities have attained the peak of supreme happiness in exuberant wealth, they have, through an ebullition of insolent self-satisfaction, through human folly, perished together with their vaunted possessions.

Thus every human empire has shown three distinct stages: growth, fruition, and destruction. For in the beginning, being destitute of goods, empires are engrossed in acquisition; but after they become wealthy, they perish. Such things, therefore, are under the dominion of the gods, being incorruptible, are preserved through the whole of time, by incorruptible natures; but such things as are under the government of men, being mortal; from mortals receive perpetual disturbance. The end of self-satisfaction and insolence is destruction; but poverty and narrow circumstances often result in a strenuous and worthy life. Not poverty alone, but many other things, bring human life to an end.